Chapter 9 - The Byzantine Art

Mosaic of Christ Pantokrator, in Hosios Loukas. The monastery, located in Phocis near the site of ancient Delphi, and was built in the 11th century CE in honor of Saint Luke of Steiri (896-953)

Archetypal Gothic Lady of Sorrows from a triptych by the Master of the Stauffenberg Altarpiece, Alsace, circa 1455

There is a great deal of affinity between the modern graphic design and the Byzantine art. Like the modern graphic design the Byzantine art’s main concern was to convey its messages to its audiences in the most effective and efficient way. The Byzantine artists used various signs, stylized images and calligraphy to convey the messages of their faith. Like any other artists in any other periods these artists were influenced by the art of their predecessors. Many of their images and symbols were directly borrowed from the Mithraic pagans of Rome who were dominating the cultural scene of the empire during the early centuries of Christianity. In those early periods, due to the animosity of the Roman Mithraist establishment towards Christianity, the church had to adopt numerous concealed signs that were discernible only by the loyal affiliates of the church. Among such signs, for instance, was fish which was used as a symbol of Christ. The Greek word for fish was formed by the juxtaposition of the initial Greek letters for Jesus Christ, Son of God, and Savior (Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter = ICHTHYS, the fish). But also the artists portrayed Christ in the guise of various heroes of the Mithraic mysteries which were worshiped by many Roman legionnaires, senators and even emperors like Julian .

Good-shepherd-fresco in The Crypts of Lucina, ceiling of the Cubiculum of a catacomb of Callixtus in Rome mid-third century. Such Mithraic images were freely adopted by the Byzantine artists.

Perhaps the first scholar who discovered this fact was Franz Cumont who ascertained that the images of the Heavens, Earth, Ocean, Sun, Moon, Zodiac planets, Seasons, and Four elements depicted on Christian mosaics and other art forms of the third to the fifth centuries are indeed Mithraic symbols. Cumont, was aware of the fact that despite the Church’s opposition to the Mithraist’s celebration of the cosmic cycle, these signs were nevertheless integrated into Christian imagery, in which

"a few alterations in costume and attitude transformed a pagan scene into a Christian picture."

An example of such Mithraic depictions was a water spring gushing out of rocks which was emanating from him shooting of his arrows at those rocks. According to Cumont , this image was the source of the early Christian image of Moses striking Mount Horeb with his cane to release water.

Sol Invictus had been adopted by the Church of Rome as evidenced by Christ as Mithra-Helios in a mausoleum discovered under St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City and dated to 250. From the beginning of the third century "Sun of Justice" was used as a title of Christ.

Another researcher, M.J. Vermaseren, has argued that Christian portrayals on sarcophagi of the soul’s ascension into heaven, though apparently referencing the biblical scene of Elijah being led into heaven by fiery chariots and horses, were in fact inspired by representations of Mithras' ascent into the heavens in Helios’ chariot. He identified the sun god, as the source of inspiration for the flames on Elijah’s chariot and the god Oceanus as the inspiration for the Jordan River.

Robin Jensen has argued that the early Christian art depicted Christ as the sun, in virtually the same way as the sun was depicted in the Mithraism iconography. Jensen argues:

In the famous early fourth century mosaic said to be of Christi Helios in the dome of the mausoleum of the Julii in the excavations under Saint Peter’s on the Vatican, we see a figure that may have been meant to represent Christ as Sol or perhaps as a rival to Sol riding in a chariot, surrounded by a golden sky, and adorned with a radiate halo. This rather glorious image corresponds with biblical language about Christ as the light (for example, John 1:1-5 and Eph 5:14) and with some textual references to Christ that employed solar imagery, including Clement of Alexandria’s description of Christ as the “Sun of Righteousness” who rides in his chariot over all creation and “who has changed sunset into sunrise and crucified death into life.”

Icon of Archangel Gabriel, tempera and gold on wood panel with raised borders, Holy Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai, Egypt, second half of the 13th century. This masterpieces of Byzantine art depicts the archangel Gabriel wearing a light green tunic and a himation covered with golden highlights over a golden background. A series of concentric circles lead the the observer's eyes to the eyes of the figure.Icon of Archangel Gabriel, tempera and gold on wood panel with raised borders, Holy Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai, Egypt, second half of the 13th century. This masterpieces of Byzantine art depicts the archangel Gabriel wearing a light green tunic and a himation covered with golden highlights over a golden background. A series of concentric circles lead the the observer's eyes to the eyes of the figure.

In this regard, A. Deman has suggested that rather than attempting to find individual references from Mithraic art in Christian iconography, it would be more accurate to look for more general patterns of comparison so that pure coincidences can no longer be used to identify Mithra as the privileged pagan inspirer of medieval Christian iconography. Deman put side by side what he calls the "creative sacrifice" of Mithra with the creative sacrifice of Christ. In both cases the sacrifice associated with the timing of the vernal equinox is critical to the representation, with sun and the moon symmetrically placed above the image. The images of the twins, Cautes and Cautopates, who are also symmetrically placed underneath of the Mithraic sacrifice scenes, with the former raising his torch above his head and the latter lowering his torch towards his feet were replicated in the Christian depictions with two characters that were generally Mary and John, or two Roman soldiers armed with lances, or Longinus holding a spear and Stephaton offering Jesus vinegar from a sponge. At times even the clothes of these Christian figures appeared the same as of those of Cautes and Cautopates. Moreover, Deman also were able to identify the twelve apostles shown in Christian crucifixion scenes with the twelve signs of the zodiac common in the Mithraic scenes, as well as identifying a cross-legged posture commonly found in figures in both sets of iconography.

The Cambrai Madonna (Notre-Dame de Grace), Italo-Byzantine, tempera on cedar panel (backed by a modern panel), circa 1340, 14 by 10 3/8 inches, Cathedrale de Cambrai, France

The Vision of St Sergius, Tempera on panel and gilding. Russia. Early 17th century, State Hermitage Museum. 1959

This work was painted at the Trinity Monastery of St Sergius, near Moscow. The artist tries to communicate the truth of the appearance of the Virgin , the apostles Peter and John ( all three are depicted in the left) to the Venerable St Sergius of Radonezh, in the presence of his pupil Micah (both are depicted in the right). At the top of the scene, in a semicircle, the evidence is presented by the eye witness account of the Old Testament Trinity - three Angels seated at repast.
With Constantine’s proclamation of Christianity as the official religion of Rome the church did not need anymore to resort to secretive signs. Constantine moved the capital of the state to the ancient city of Byzantium (later Constantinople) and during the early third century to the end of the fifth century, Christian art went through a drastic transformation. The new Byzantine art was somewhat exclusively concentrated on religious themes. Its aesthetic forms nurtured from its concerns over accurate liturgical representations of church’s doctrine of salvation. However, still the oriental tradition of stylized forms depicted over highly ornamental flat surfaces, which were adopted from Mithrists, dominated the iconic approach that stressed on spirituality and mysticism. Now, the figure of Christ crowned with a nimbus and sitting or standing in the attitude of authority, was even more clearly reminiscent of the image of Mithra. The nimbus was also extended to the virgin and other disciples. These icons, usually made of mosaic, were placed in an hierarchical format inside Byzantine churches. At the top of this hierarchy was the figure of God the father (the Pantocrator), Angels and archangels were depicted at a lower level, and below them were the figures of the saints, again this was a hierarchy that could closely be associated with the Mithraic cosmology.

Mosaic from Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, 6th century, showing the Emperor Justinian and Bishop Maximian of Ravenna surrounded by clerics and soldiers. Here the graphic statement conveys the unification of the church and state.

The subject matter of Byzantine art was primarily religious and imperial. Justinian's religious policy reflected the imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire unconditionally presupposed unity of faith. According to the contemporary writers such as John Malalas, Theophanes, and John of Ephesus Pagan Mithraists, even men of high positions, were severely persecuted to abandon their faith. In in 529 AD the Neoplatonic Academy of Athens was placed under state control by order of Justinian effectively terminating the last bastion of the Mithraist thought.

Portable Mosaic Icon with Saint John Chrysostom. Byzantine (Constantinope), circa 1325, miniature mosaic set in wax on wood panel, with gold, gilded copper and multicolored stones, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C.

In his Greater Apology for the Holy Images, the monk Nicephoras claimed that icons were "expressive of the silence of God, exhibiting in themselves the ineffability of a mystery that transcends being. Without ceasing and without speech, they praise the goodness of God in that venerable and thrice-illumined melody of theology." Instead of instructing the faithful in the dogmas of the Church and helping them to form lucid ideas about their faith, the icons held them in a sense of mystery. When describing the effect of these religious paintings, Nicephoras could only compare it to the effect of music, the most ineffable of the arts and possibly the most direct. Emotion and experience are conveyed by music in a way that bypasses words and concepts.
-Karen Armstrong in "The God of the Mystics," from A History of God: The 4000 Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam (Ballentine Books, 1993)

Detail of San Vitale's apse mosaic, dating from 526-47 AD. It depicts a youthful Christ the Redeemer sitting on the sphere of the world, flanked by San Vitale (who is being handed a martyr's crown), two angels, and Bishop Ecclesius, who founded the church.

However, the church was very much concerned about the authenticity of its sacred icons, which revolved around them being faithful to the themes of Christian rites and ceremonies and their presumed fidelity with respect to historical events. This may be deducted from a seventh-century dialogue recorded in the council of Nicaea by John of Thessaloniki in which a Christian criticizes a pagan by saying: "We ... make images of men who have existed and have had bodies-the holy servants of God- so that we may remember them and reverence them, and we do nothing incongruous in depicting them such as they have been. We do not invent anything as you [pagans] do."

Painting: the Virgin implore Christ, The Church St. Saviour in Chora - 14th Cent.

The figures such as that of the Mithraic Zurvan with a lion’s head and human body were absolutely frowned upon by the church. For instance, when a passerby criticized St. Andrew the Fool who was standing in front of the great bronze doors of the Senate and looking at a relief of perhaps Zurvan, with a writhing snakes, the saint retorted by saying:"You fool in your spirit! I am looking at the visible idols, but you are a spiritual 'thong-leg,' and a serpent, and of the viper's brood, for your soul's axles and your heart's spiritual legs are crooked and going to Hades."

Nevertheless, as Christianity spread and became less secretive the use of symbols was gradually reduced and the meaning of what remained of symbols were inscribed on the icons. This was in accordance with Council of Trullo’s proclaimation that these 'symbols and first drafts of the truth' had lost any meaning from the moment that man could depict Grace and Truth directly by representing the Christ-God-Logos 'in the human shape'. In fact, the Byzantine art adopted the Mithraic focus on mineralization of forms which was built upon a serious emphasis on the composition of lines over flat, and usually golden surfaces. The individual characteristics of figures were suppressed in favour of stylized portraits which their eyes gazed straight into the viewers’ eyes and their figures were flattened and elongated. In these icons a communicative ambiance was introduced by the overall composition and background motifs. The use of inscriptions in order to reveal the meaning of symbols, which required formalistic compositions of the icons created great opportunities for aesthetic development of graphic design concepts, as we define them today. Some of these inscriptions were just abbreviations, and were composed symmetrically as decorative seals, for example on the icons of Christ and the Virgin. In a graphic design paradigm, these were the precursors of today’s logotypes. On other icons, where the meanings were self-evident, such as the Crucifixion and the Nativity, the inscriptions still remained and finally became part of the icon itself. This helped to create a distinct calligraphy as well as an integrated approach towards the harmonious composition of images and texts. Of course, some Mithraic symbols remained in tact: for instance the sun, the moon, the death's head, Night and Dawn.

Mosaic of Zoe and Constantine IX Monomachos, Hagia Sophia - 6th Cent.

Christianization of the Bulgarians. Miniature 57 from the Constantine Manasses Chronicle, 14 century: Christianization of the Bulgarians.

Many icons have interesting stories behind them. For example, Saint Gregory, Bishop of Agrigentum, was born on the island of Sicily. As archbishop, he led the life of an ascetic monk, fervently observing monastic vows. While he was in church, some vicious people bribed a harlot to go to his chambers. They then led her out and accused him of fornication. The Pope, after reading the charges, did not want to see the accused, and gave orders to remand him to prison. The saint endured his humiliation humbly, dwelling in constant prayer. After two years, a clairvoyant Elder named Mark who did not believe the charges, persuaded the Pope to convene a Council to decide Gregory's case. At the invitation of the Pope, many clergy from the city of Agrigentum came to the Council. At the Council the woman came to her senses and told the Council the whole truth. St Gregory returned in honor to his own cathedral, and surrounded by the love of his flock, he guided the Church until his own peaceful demise.

Saint Venerable-Martyr Hegumen Pajsije, Saint Venerable-Martyr Deacon Avakum and Saint Venerable-Martyr Jovan of Stjenik

Saint Venerable-Martyr Deacon Avakum of Belgrade

Saint Newmartyress by NATO, Militza The Child (Rade M. Pavlovich)

Lazasrus Saturday, Serbia

The Iconoclasts Controversy

In the early 8th century the iconoclasts (those who wanted to destroy religious images) . pointed to the clear language of the Second Commandment, which condemns idolatry, and demanded that all the figurative representations to be destroyed. Both iconoclasts and their opponents, iconodules, were of the opinion that Christianity could not flourish unless it settled the question of figurative representations. As an iconodule, St. John of Damascus resorted to the Neoplatonic-Mithraist doctrine, and argued that since God had himself incarnated into the image of Christ, the creation of the figurative icons was permissible. The iconoclasts, on the other hand, by using the Monophysitism doctrine, argued that since the nature of Christ is identical and indistinguishable from the essence of God, any figurative representations would be culpable of blasphemy. Finally, Emperor Leo III, the Isaurian (c. 680–741), promulgated a diktat against the idolization of icons. Although Leo’s decision was chastised by the pope, the emperor strictly enforced iconoclasm at Constantinople and this policy was reinforced by his son Constantine V (718–75). The policy was halted during the reign of Empress Irene, when the iconodules at the second Council of Nicaea, in 787 condemned the iconoclasts. Nevertheless, the condemnation of icons were reestablished under the last iconoclast Emperor Theophilus (829-42). At last, under the patronage of Empress Theodora II (d. 867?) the Council of Orthodoxy, held in 843 put an end to iconoclasm, although not all the iconoclast opposition disappeared overnight.

 

The lifting of the ban on icons was followed by the Macedonian Renaissance, beginning with the reign of Emperor Basil I at the end of the ninth century and lasted throughout the next century. During this period new churches like the Hosios Lukas Monastery in Greece and the Nea Moni Katholikon in Chios were built, and the Byzantine art flourished again. After the battle of Manzikert at the second half of the eleventh century and the subsequent loss of Asia Minor to the Turks, the Komnenoi dynasty who were great art enthusiasts revitalized the cultural life of empire. But, eight hundred years of uninterrupted Byzantine culture were brought to an abrupt end in 1204 with the sacking of Constantinople by the knights of the Fourth Crusade, a disaster from which the Empire never recovered.

St George Icon from the Museum of the Hellenic and Byzantine Institute attached to the Church of St George of the Greeks

Tsar Boris I meeting the disciples of Saints Cyril Tsar Boris I meeting the disciples of Saints Cyril and Methodius

Krum feasts with Nikephoros' scull Krum feasts with his nobles, while the servant (right) is bringing the scull of Nikephoros already made a drinking cup full of wine.

 Khan Krum captured the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros I, had him decapitated, and transformed the imperial skull into a drinking vessel.

 

Ecumenical Council of Nicea. The Roman Emperor Constantine I is the figure in the center. The scroll contains the first half of the Greek text of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed. During the first council of Nicaea in 325 CE, the Emperor Constantine urged the bishops to include the term homoousion — the Greek word meaning "of one substance," which was used to express the relation in the one Godhead of the Father and the Son and affirm that Jesus was fully divine. The profession of faith was solidified 56 years later at the Council of Constantinople.


Go to the next chapter : Chapter 10 - The Art of Miniature  

References

• Franz Cumont, The Mysteries of Mithra, Dover Publications, 1956, ISBN-10: 0486203239
• Vermaseren, M. J. , A Unique Representation of Mithras, Vigiliae Christianae, Vol. 4, No. 3 (Jul., 1950), : BRILL
• Vermaseren, M.J., Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1956, 2 vols. The standard collection of Mithraic reliefs.
• Jensen, Robin Margaret. Face to Face: Portraits of the Divine in Early Christianity. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005.
• Bjørnebye , Jonas, “Hic locus est felix, sanctus, piusque benignus” The cult of Mithras in fourth century Rome, Dissertation for the degree of philosophiae doctor (PhD), Faculty of Arts, University of Bergen, Norway, 2007
• Derman, A. (1971). Hinnells, John R.. ed. “Mithras and Christ: Some Iconographical Similarities,” in Mithraic Studies, vol. 2. Manchester University Press. pp. 510-7.
• Henry Maguire, The Profane Aesthetic in Byzantine Art and Literature, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 53 (1999), Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University
• Michelis, P. A. , BYZANTINE ART AS A RELIGIOUS AND DIDACTIC ART, The paper presented at the 13th International Congress of Byzantine Studies held at, Oxford in September 1966
• Barnard, Leslie William ,The Graeco-Roman and oriental background of the iconoclastic controversy Volume 5 of Byzantina Neerlandica, BRILL, 1974 , ISBN9004039449

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Chapter 8 - Tarot cards and Mithraism

The graphic design artist who created this magnificent Tarot deck was Gioseppe Maria Mitelli (1634-1718) from Bologna, Italy. Etcher, painter and sculptor, and son of Agostino Mitelli, a painter of the Baroque period; best known as a fresco painter of quadratura, Gioseppe studied with several prominent Bolognese painters. He has created over 500 etched prints of contemporary manners and morals, with his most renowned series of etchings at L'arti per via, loosely based on drawings by Annibale Carracci celebrating the vendors and artisans of Bologna. His large posters, illustrating ceremonies and pageants, warfare, folklore, trades and religious paintings, provides a rich cultural source for contemporary Bolognese life.

Mithra, Mithraic Mysteries, and Tarot cards

The introduction of tarot cards in Europe is dated between 1375 and 1378. These cards were acting as a conduit for conveying the messages of the mystery religion of Mithra (Latin and Gk Míthrās, Old Persian Mithra, derives from proto-Indo-Iranian mitra, from the root mi- "to bind" ), the god of light and truth, and represented by the sun.

According to the Roman historian Plutarch (c. 46-120 AD/CE), Mithraism began to be absorbed by the Romans during Pompey's military campaign against Cilician pirates around 70 BCE. The religion eventually migrated from Asia Minor through the soldiers, many of whom had been citizens of the region, into Rome and the far reaches of the Empire. Syrian merchants brought Mithraism to the major cities, such as Alexandria, Rome and Carthage, while captives carried it to the countryside. By the third century AD/CE Mithraism and its mysteries permeated the Roman Empire and extended from India to Scotland, with abundant monuments in numerous countries amounting to over 420 Mithraic sites so far discovered.

The Myth

The cosmology of Tarot is based on the seven planets of the Mithraic cult which represented beneficent deities. Such a zodiac representation was liberally deployed on the sculpted and painted monuments and in the design of the mithraeum in order to render it a true likeness of the cosmos for induction into the mystery of the descent of souls and their exit back out again. Each one of these heavenly deities has its own representative shadow on earth. They have exactly the same names as their heavenly fathers. The earthly-Mithra himself is the son of Mithra -- the sun, but Helios Mithras is one god. This difficulty, in identifying the heavenly fathers from their earthly sons, has been a great source of confusion for many researchers. The seven days of the week, the seven sacred metals, the seven rites of initiation, and so on were all dedicated to these seven deities. According to the Mitraists' myth of genesis the spirits of all men were created simultaneously, which at their births had to descend from the heavenly paradise to their bodies.The seven planets bestow on people their fates and personalities. Mithra is the friend and the savior of man who is under the spell of Ahreman the evil spirit and his collaborates. Mithra was “born of a Virgin” ( and this is why the calendar originally began in the constellation of Virgo), over Petra Genetrix -- the rock that gives birth, by a river under a tree, as some shepherds watched his birth. When he entered the world he wore the Phrygian cap on his head, and a sword in his hand. The hero-god first gives battle to his father the sun, conquers him, crowns him with rays and makes him his eternal friend and fellow. Then follows the central epic of Mithraic belief, tauroctony or the killing of the bull.

The wild bull created by Ahura Mazda which Mithra pursued, overcame, and dragged into his cave is depicted in many Mithraic relief with a remarkable consistency. Mithra at the mouth of a cave, straddling the bull and plunging a dagger into its heart. A dog and a snake dart up at the blood flowing from the wound. A scorpion fastens on the bull's genitals, and a raven perches on the god's billowing mantle. Extraordinarily, the tail of the dying bull has transmogrified into an ear of wheat. On either side of the scene the twin gods Cautes and Cautopates are posed, the former holding a raised torch, the latter a lowered torch. Above and to the left is the Sun god, above and to the right the Moon goddess. Frequently in tauroctonies from the Rhine and Danube areas, a lion and a two-handled cup are added to the scene

Visconti-Sforza Tarocchi Deck

This allegory of an arduous quest to kill the bull and bring it back to the cave associates with Man's spiritual journey towards perfection. The spiteful meddling of Ahriman in the form of cataclysm, droughts, and fires interfere with Man's salvation, which at the end is reached by the beneficence of Mithra. Eventually, with the deliverance of Man assured on earth, Mithra partakes a last supper on earth, accompanied by Helios and his companions. After the supper he is taken in his fiery chariot across the ocean, to his heavenly father from where he works to deliver his future followers. As Frothingham has argued :

" During all the period of his labors and exploits Mithra was not a divine being but a hero. His apotheosis to the divine sphere, like that of Heracles, came afterwards; and only after his translation, in the chariot of the Sun, could he have been represented with the nimbus. This explanation seems supported by the fact that the most important group of representations of Mithra with a nimbus and radiate head is on the Scythian coins of Bactria, struck for Kings Kanerkes and Hooerkes between 87 and 129 A.D.1 In these coins Mithra is represented standing nimbed and radiate as the protector of the King. Another important instance of a radiate and nimbed Mithra is on a relief at Nimrud-Dagh on the temple connected with the funeral monument of King Antiochus of Commagene (69-34 B. c.).2 Here also Mithra stands in front of the King as his protector."

Mithraic conducts was basically of ascetic nature; characterized by temperance. Absolute continence was celebrated as gracious and honorable. At the apocalypse, Mithra; in his capacity as Sol Invictus or Nabarses -- meaning never conquered -- will return to earth riding on a bull, which he will sacrifice, to bestow immortality on everybody.

Mithraic Mystries

The Mithraists worshipped in their sanctuaries Mithraeum which were subterranean caves. There were numerous temples in the Roman empire, the majority have been found in the city of Rome itself. There were five at Ostia alone and could accommodate between forty and a hundred worshipers. These caves were quite dark and required artificial lighting for their conduct of religious rites. They also contained a well. To reach a Mitraeum one had to pass a labyrinth of subterranean passages, which had allegorical connotations, and were used in the initiation ceremonies.

There were seven degrees of initiation into the mithraic mysteries: corax, Raven; cryphius, Prophetess; miles, Soldier; leo, Lion; Perses, Persian; heliodromus, Solar messenger; pater, Father. To each rank belonged a particular mask and garb. These represented seven stages of Justice for the just, who passed through the seven gates of the seven spheres of the planets, leading to a hermetical abode of Mithra the father. Each apotheosis' stage represents a higher degree of humanity until, at the final stage the humanity of the initiates reaching this highest stage submerges into the Mithra's pure spirit of Godlines.

The initiation ceremonies depicted on the frescoes at Capua, Italy show that the initiates were blindfolded, kneeling, and prostrated. These ceremonies enacted the spiritual journey of Mithra . According to Tertullian, a second century North African Christian theologian, the candidates for elavating into the the miles rank were tested for their gallantry. The test consisted of a kind of armed encounter, which the candidate had to force his way towards a coronal. Upon reaching the coronal, a reward was offered to him by an officiant; who suggested to crown him with the coronal. The aspirant had to decline, by saying that Mithra alone was his crown.

This typical mithraeum at Capua, Italy is a small rectangular subterranean chamber with a vaulted ceiling. An aisle usually ran lengthwise down the center of the temple, with a stone bench on either side two or three feet high on which the cult's members would sit during their ceremonies. At the end of the aisle was always a carved relief, a statue or a painting depicting tauroctony or bull-killing scene by Mithras

Tarot Cards

The earliest documents on Tarot are found in the northern Italy, early in the 15th century (1420-1440). Mithraism and Orpheic Mysteries as well as Neoplatonism philosophy were among the influences of Renaissance in Italy that originated Tarot, that were referred to as carte da trionfi (cards of triumph) . The concept of Trumps -- a variation of triumph derived from Greek thríambos hymn to Dionysus . The Dionysus myth is closely related to the Mithra and the Orphic Mysteries. According to these Mysteries the human race, were part divine and part evil. Both the Mithraism and the Orphics Mysteries believed in the sacrosanct essence of the soul, and that it was through initiation into the Mysteries and through the process of metempsychosis that the soul could be redeemed from its evil legacy and could accomplish everlasting beatitude. The concept of Triumph of the soul was developed in Neoplatonic centers in Rome, Athens and Alexandria, where the mystical aspects of Mithraism, including divination, demonology, and astrology were practiced. The Neoplatonic Triumph of the soul was a variation on the theme of the popular trionfi motif appeared in art, literature, religious processions, festival pageants, and so on. A Tarot deck , consisted of 78-card deck, of which there were a hierarchy of 22 allegorical trump cards closely related to the Mithraic symbols, such as; judgment, justice, devil (Ahreman), temperance, Mithras' chariot, the sun, and the moon and so on . Each trump triumphed over the lower-ranking trumps.

Tarocchi of Mantegna is one of the earliest known tarot or Tarocchi packs, being dated to c.1465. The artistic design is attributed to Andreas Mantegna (1431-1506); who was a Renaissance artist living in Italy. In this deck there are no dark cards (Traitor, Death, Devil, Fire). This suggests the Tarocchi del Mantegna was oriented towards spiritual teaching . As Man ascends the sequence, He approaches the Divine, each subsequent card is not only more powerful, but also more noble.

Artists have used the aesthetics of Tarot concepts for their artistic imaginations, and numerous artists have used its allegorical concepts as a conduit for creative expression. However, these allegorical expressions have been acculturated in order to maintain, consciously or unconsciously, the spirit of Mithraic teachings . The vast majority of all Tarot decks in the 15th through 17th centuries share that acculturation, which resulted in a methodical design. The series of images was similar in style to to the mural paintings in Mithraea. Tarot quickly spread in northern Italy, through Milan, Bologna, and Ferrara. While printed decks became popular, the affluent households commissioned lavishly painted cards, often decorated with gold and silver leaf backgrounds. Historical records from 1436 show that the d'Este court of Ferrara had even a printing press for making cards.

Two of the oldest known Tarot or Tarocchi packs, are the Tarocchi of Mantegna being dated to c.1465, and the Visconti-Sforza deck of the late-fifteenth century. The Tarocchi of Mantegna has been attributed to Andreas Mantegna (1431-1506) the painter and printmaker of the School of Padua, although some researchers dispute this and are of the opinion that it is the work of Parrasio Michele, Master of the School of Ferrara. With the proliferation of cards into new locales some minor innovations were introduced in the sequence of the trumps and their iconography. Of course there are some exceptions; such as the classicized Sola Busca deck and the literary Boiardo deck, which both depict drastically different designs. Nevertheless, despite various alterations in iconography, whether attempts in decimalization or conversely elaborate decorations did not change the overall allegorical characters of the cards .

Visconti-Sforza deck of the mid-fifteenth century which is recognised as the earliest tarot. Seventy-four cards from this deck have survived. They are currently located in the Pierpont Morgan Library, NY (35 cards), the Accademia Carrara in Bergamo, Italy (26 cards) and the Colleoni family, Bergamo (13 cards). In the 17th century the cards belonged to Canon Ambivero. They were passed to the Donali family, and then to Count Alessandro Colleoni of Bergamo. At one point Count Colleoni was persuaded by his friend Count Francesco Baglioni to trade 26 cards for some art objects. He later regretted the trade, but was never able to secure the return of his cards. They were bequeathed to the Accademia Carrera in 1900 upon the death of Count Baglioni.

The Hermit or L'Hermite Major Arcana from the early 18th century Tarot of Jean Dodal

This deck is the restored version of the Tarot de Marseille by Philippe Camoin (aka Tourrasse) and Alexandro Jodorowsky. They spent 3 years restoring the 78 cards as closely as possible to the original Tarot de Marseille.

The Tarot of Marseilles (or Tarot of Marseille), also widely known by the French designation Tarot de Marseille, is one of the standard patterns for the design of tarot cards. The name Tarot de Marseille is not of particularly ancient vintage; it was coined at least as early as 1889 by the French occultist Papus (Gérard Encausse) in Chapter XI of his book le Tarot des bohémiens (Tarot of the Bohemians), and was popularized in the 1930s by the French cartomancer Paul Marteau, who used this collective name to refer to a variety of closely related designs that were being made in the city of Marseille in the south of France, a city that was a centre of playing card manufacture, and were (in earlier, contemporaneous, and later times) also made in other cities in France.

The “Charles VI” or “Gringonneur” tarot cards

During the late 1700's and into the early 1800's Alphonse Louis Constant, a French occultist, a Catholic Priest and author who wrote under the pseudonym of Magus Eliphas Levi , created the basis for the most popular Tarot cards still in use today. He believed in the existence of a universal “secret doctrine of magic” that had prevailed throughout history and was evident everywhere in the world. He found close connections between some of the Jewish iconography and the Mithraic myths. In his 'Histoire de la Magie' He argued that that the Mithraic bull represents the angel with the fiery sword who guards the entrance to Paradise;

"the great magical work is the conquest and direction of the burning sword that the cherub [the bull-headed angel ] wields to prevent the return to Eden. In Mithraic symbolism the master of light is seen as vanquishing the bull of earth and plunging into his flank the sword that sets free the life, represented by the drops of the bull's blood."

In his book 'Transcendental Magic',1860, Levi offered his picture of devil in the form of 'Goat of Mendes drawing,' arguing that his image symbolist the position of non ascended / non aware humans, linked more to their bestial nature than their god like consciousness. Levi's ideas had deeply affected the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and greatly influenced its members such as Arthur Edward Waite who adopted the Baphomet sigil as the death card in his Rider Waite Tarot Deck . Levi was also a student of astronomy, astrology, and the metaphysics. When he created his first Tarot deck, he incorporated his knowledge of religions, the elements in nature (fire, water, earth, air), and what were believed to be powerful astrological events and symbols. There are even references to scriptures from The Bible shown in some of the cards. Levi claimed he created the cards as a tool to aid his students in the art of spiritual enlightenment, self improvement, and self awareness.

This deck is the well known Rider-Waite Tarot deck. It was designed by the artist Pamela Colman Smith under the conceptual instructions of Arthur Edward Waite, an English mystic, occultist and prolific writer on Masonic and esoteric subjects, who was a member of the Mithraic Order of the Golden Dawn. Waite had the Christian imagery of older Tarot decks' cards toned down—the "Pope" card became the "Hierophant", the "Popess" became the "High Priestess".

In the early 20th century, the Waite-Smith deck was created that because of its minimalistic Art Nouveau style became very popular. A. E. Waite was a prominent member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, a mystical order based on a -Mithraic hierarchy and initiation. It was founded in Great Britain during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the aim of practicing theurgy and spiritual development. The artist, Pamela Colman Smith illustrated the cards and contributed with her artistic vision to the design of the deck under the Mithraic instructions of A.E. Waite. One can get a glimpse of Waite's instructions from what he has written in his Encyclopedia of Freemasonry:

It appears from the testimony of Porphyry that Mythraic Mysteries depicted ... the decent of souls into generation and their emancipation or ascent there from, by which they delivered from the law of metempsychosis, one of the doctrine being that human souls are "clothed in bodies of every kind." Such an ascent connote readily enough the idea of regeneration, which has been called the Secret of the Rites. These were celebrated in caves, considered as an image of the world, and hence having two gates. That on the northern side symbolized the way of coming in, namely, by the law of generation; that on the southern side represented the way of going out and following a path of ascent from the life of humanity on earth to the life of the celestial gods... Celsus, as quoted by Origen, speaks of souls going down and up through the planetary spheres and says that in the Mithraic Initiation this is represented by "a ladder with seven gates and at its summit an eight, corresponding to Saturn, Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, Moon and Sun, the eights and last presumably that of the soul's deliverance.

Bonifacio Bembo, A. A. Atanassov, Italy, 1997

The Hermit, Kronos -Arimanius   

Kronos-Arimanius (Ahreman): This lion-headed figure is the Time-god, Zervan in Persian literature. The leontocephaline was the supreme god of the Mithraic pantheon. His nude body is entwined six times by a serpent, the head of which rests on the skull of the god. The name Arimanius. was found on the base of a similar statue of him in York, England. He holds a key in one hand , and a long scepter in the other, the symbol of authority. A thunderbolt is usually engraved on the breast. The Sassanid Mithraists regarded Zurvan Akrana, Infinite Time, as the cause and the source of all things. Ahura-Mazda and Ahriman both sprang from him and were subject to him. Saturn (referred to by the Greeks as Cronus or Kronos) was the Roman Deity of Time. Before Jupiter (Zeus) became the chief god, Saturn (Kronos) occupied the celestial throne. In Greek mythology, Kronos is presented as the father and Zeus as his son who dethrones him. Kronos devours his children, this is why Zeus overpowers him puts him in chains, and drives him from his royal station in the sky.

In Tarot, the Hermit,  represents Time, and is depicted as an old man holding an hour-glass is his hand.



 

The Hermit, Bonifacio Bembo or family Visconti-Sforza, Tarot Cards, Italy, Milan,
ca. 1450,

The Emperor, Zeus-Oromasdes

Zeus-Oromasdes (Ahura Mazda), Mount Nemrut - West Terrace

Zeus-Oromasdes  god of a Roman Mithraic cult, originally a local Hittite-Hurrian god of fertility and thunder worshiped at Doliche (modern Dülük), in southeastern Turkey. Under Achaemenid rule (6th–4th century bc), he was identified with the Persian god Ahura Mazdā, thus becoming a god of the universe. His worship and that of his consort was gradually carried westward to Rome and other military centres, where it became extremely popular during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. In the Roman mystery religion he was not only recognized as a god of the heavens but was also believed to control military success and safety. He was usually represented standing on a bull and carrying his special weapons, the double ax and the thunderbolt.

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The Sun, Apollo-Mithra

Apollo-Mithra, Mount Nemrut - West Terrace

Clement of Alexandria in his debate with Appion (Homily VIchy. X) states that Mithra is also Apollo.  The Romans called their Sun god, a successor to Apollo. An inscription by a "T. Flavius Hyginus" dating to around 80 to 100 AD/CE in Rome dedicates an altar to "Sol Invictus Mithra"—"The Unconquered Sun Mithra". Strabo, 15.3.13 (p. 732C), basing his information on a lost work, either by Posidonius (ca 135-51 BC) or by Apollodorus of Artemita (first decades of  BC), states that the Western Parthians "call the sun Mithra."

According to Plutarch: " And this is the opinion of the greatest and wisest part of mankind. For some believe that there are two Gods, as it were two rival workmen, the one whereof they make to be the maker of good things, and the other of bad. And some call the better of these God, and the other Daemon ; as doth Zoroaster the Magian whom they report to be five thousand years elder than the Trojan times. This Zoroaster now called the one of these Horomazes, and the other Arimanius ; and affirmed, moreover, that the one of them did, of any thing sensible, the most resemble light, and the other darkness and ignorance ; but that Mithras was in the middle betwixt them. For which cause the Persians call Mithras the Mediator. And they tell us, that he first taught mankind to make vows and offerings of thanksgiving to the one, and to offer averting and feral sacrifice to the other. "

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Apollo, The Tarocchi di Mantegna

Chariot 

Mithra-Sol in a chariot drawn by 4 horses (quadriga) - circle of zodiac by petrus.agricola

Mithra-Sol, like Apollo, was said to ride his chariot across the sky every day, making the sun rise and set. There are many reliefs of  Mithra riding in  a chariot. Sometimes   Perses (Persian) is depicted running behind  the Sun-god's chariot which is drawn by two or four horses,  whom Mithra-Sol controls by pulling on the reins or spurring them on with his whip. As a rule Sol-Mithra  is shown with a halo round his head and virtually naked except for a short cloak round his shoulders which flutters in the wind. Sometimes the sculptor shows the chariot's passage heavenwards, as for example on the relief at Virunum where  Perseus, recognizable by two small wings on his head and his magic wand, points the way. Reliefs from the Danube region, however, show Mithra  stepping quietly into a chariot bound towards the Ocean, which is represented by the figure of a reclining and bearded god, the lower part of whose body is draped in a cloak, and whose left arm rests on a water jar.

Knight of Cups, Perseus

Perseus Beheading Medusa Benvenuto Cellini 1645-1554 Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence Plato ascribed the race of the Persians to Perseus. According to the Greek mythology Zeus came to Perseus' mother, Danae, in the form of a shower of gold, and impregnated her resulting in the birth of Perseus. As a young man Perseus undertook a mission to kill Medusa the Gorgon. Plato states that Achaemenes / Perses (Hachmanesh/ Persian) was the son of the Ethiopian queen Andromeda and Perseus. In mythology, Perseus received the cap, which renders its wearer invisible, from Hades and used it in order to kill Medusa. Perseus is a large constellation that is known for its binary star system Algol ( Arabic; monster) as well as the Perseids, a famously dramatic meteor shower. Medusa had became a cruel monster that no living thing could look at her without being turned into stone. All around the cavern where she dwelt might be seen the stony figures of men and animals which had chanced to catch a glimpse of her and had been petrified with the sight. Perseus, favoured by Athena goddess of justice and law and Hermes, the spirit of moderation, self-control, and temperance (Persian, Parsaie), the former of whom lent him her shield and the latter his winged shoes [to walk the path], approached Medusa while she slept and taking care not to look directly at her , but guided by her image reflected in the bright shield, he cut off her head and gave it to Athena.

Empress; Anahita  (Aphrodites)  

  Anahita ,  Armenia Minor, c 200-100BC. British Museum, London
Found at the ancient city of Satala, modern Sadak, north-eastern Turkey

In Persian mythology, Anahita is the goddess of all the waters upon the earth and the source of the cosmic ocean; she drives a chariot pulled by four horses: wind, rain, cloud and sleet; her symbol is the eight-rayed star. She is regarded as the source of life... Before calling on Mithra (fiery sun), a prayer was offered to the sea goddess Anahita, whom her very name means, Clean, Pure, and Immaculate, the virgin goddess.Herodotus and the Babylonian writer Berossus (3rd cent. BCE) both equate Persian Anahita with Aphrodite, Greek goddess of love and procreation, while many other ancient reports identify her with the Greek virgin goddess Artemis.   In the development of astrology the planet Venus was said to have its exaltation or house in the sign of Taurus (Bull). According to Persian mythology, Mithras was born of virgin goddess Ananita.

She was also a goddess of magic, served by the Magi, priest-magicians whose name gives us the root word for both ‘magic’ and ‘magus’. They would meet to read their sacred texts among assemblies of worshippers and offer "holy spells" to Anahita, perhaps on the tenth day from the New Moon or during the eighth month-her sacred times.

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